@article {2506, title = {Taxonomy and Pharmacognosy of Bergenia ciliata}, journal = {Pharmacognosy Journal}, volume = {17}, year = {2025}, month = {June 2025}, pages = {314-322}, type = {Original Article}, chapter = {314}, abstract = {

Background: The crude drug (P{\={a}}sh{\={a}}nabheda) described in several pharmacopoeias is the rhizome of the plant species Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. (Saxifragaceae), an evergreen, perennial temperate herb that grows at an elevation of 900-3000 m AMSL in the Indian Himalaya. The rhizome has been used for centuries to treat kidney and bladder stones and rheumatoid arthritis besides the other therapeutic and nutraceutical applications in ethnomedicine, traditional, Ayurveda and Unani systems of medicine. Objective: In view of issues in identifying raw material and segregating the adulterants of the crude drug, a pharmacognostic study was undertaken to provide ways for its safe use by obtaining detailed anatomical features of both the rhizome and the root of Bergenia ciliata by means of fresh and dried material. Methods: A brief description of the crude drug and its powder is made available employing the standard microscopic and phytochemical evaluations. Results: Using in-house developed thin-layer chromatography and HPLC methods, bergenin has been isolated in rhizome extract for quality control purposes. Traditional and therapeutic uses of the principal bioactive constituent bergenin, arbutin and the other phytochemical constituents are discussed. Furthermore, an account of raw material specifications for the rhizome, standards used, and regulatory status are presented against the background of the published information. Conclusion: Results presented in the report will further lead to future studies on beneficial and quality control aspects of the rhizome and to develop a potential nutraceutical, dietary supplement.

}, keywords = {Bergenin, Dietary supplement, Kidney stones, Pashanabheda, rheumatoid arthritis}, doi = {10.5530/pj.2025.17.40}, author = {T. Sudhakar Johnson and Ashit Vora and Vatsavaya S. Raju and Sameer C. Patil} } @article {828, title = {The Interactive Antimicrobial Activity of Conventional Antibiotics and Petalostigma spp. Extracts Against Bacterial Triggers of some Autoimmune Inflammatory Diseases}, journal = {Pharmacognosy Journal}, volume = {11}, year = {2019}, month = {March 2019}, pages = {292-309}, type = {Research Article}, chapter = {292}, abstract = {

Introduction: An increase in antibiotic resistance and a corresponding decrease in antimicrobial discovery have directed researchers towards alternative therapies, including plant-based medicines. However, synergistic combinations of plant extracts with conventional antibiotics are a far more effective approach in overcoming resistance and potentiating the activity of antibiotics that are otherwise ineffective against resistant bacterial strains. Methods: In this study, Petalostigma spp. (native Australian medicinal plants) extracts were combined with a range of conventional antibiotics and tested against various microbial triggers of autoimmune diseases. The fruit and leaves were extracted separately with solvents of varying polarity and investigated for the ability to inhibit bacterial growth using disc diffusion and liquid dilution MIC techniques. Results: The methanolic and water extracts showed low to moderate inhibitory activity against several microbes. However, combinations of the mid-low polarity extracts with conventional antibiotics proved significantly more effective in inhibiting the growth of Proteus mirabilis and Acinetobacter baylyi (bacterial triggers of rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis respectively). In total, 14 different combinations proved to be synergistic. Notably, two antibiotics (chloramphenicol and erythromycin) with no inhibitory activity against P. mirabilis alone were shown to have substantial activity when tested in combination with Petalostigma spp. extracts. Conclusion: Although the mechanisms of synergy are still unclear, studies indicate that compounds within Petalostigma spp. may mimic the actions of resistance modifying agents, thus potentiating the activity of several antibiotics that are relatively ineffective alone. Isolation of these agents may be highly beneficial in drug design against several bacteria including the microbial triggers of rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis.

}, keywords = {ankylosing spondylitis, Conventional antimicrobials, Drug combinations, Efflux pump inhibitor, Interaction, Medicinal plants, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, Synergy}, doi = {10.5530/pj.2019.11.45}, author = {Aishwarya Ilanko and Ian Edwin Cock} } @article {614, title = {An Interactive Antimicrobial Activity of Embelica officinalis Gaertn. Fruit Extracts and Conventional Antibiotics against Some Bacterial Triggers of Autoimmune Inflammatory Diseases}, journal = {Pharmacognosy Journal}, volume = {10}, year = {2018}, month = {June 2018}, pages = {654-662}, type = {Original Article}, chapter = {654}, abstract = {

Background: Embelica officinalis Gaertn. is an Indian plant which is known for its therapeutic properties. It is especially well known as a component of the Ayuverdic medicine Triphala. This study focuses on the growth inhibitory activity of E. officinalis fruit extracts against some bacterial triggers of autoimmune inflammatory diseases, both alone and in combination with conventional antibiotics. Methods: E. officinalis fruit powder was extracted with solvents of varying polarity and screened for bacterial growth inhibition by disc diffusion assay. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was quantified by both liquid dilution and disc diffusion techniques. To screen for combinatorial effects, the E. officinalis fruit extracts were combined with a range of conventional antibiotics and tested against each bacteria using a liquid dilution assay. Toxicity was examined using Artemia nauplii and HDF bioassays. Results: The ethyl acetate E. officinalis fruit extract displayed the strongest growth inhibitory activity against all of the bacterial triggers of autoimmune inflammatory disease. This extract was a particularly potent inhibitor of P. aeruginosa growth, with an MIC values as low as 264 \μg/mL. The ethyl acetate extract was also a moderate to strong growth inhibitor of P. mirabilis, K. pneumonia and A. baylyi, with MIC values generally 1000-1500 \μg/mL. The methanolic and aqueous extracts also inhibited the growth of all bacteria, although generally with only moderate to low activity. Whilst no synergistic interactions were detected in combinations containing the E. officinalis fruit extracts and conventional antibiotics, a number of combinations produced additive effects. These combinations are beneficial as they provide enhanced antibacterial efficacy compared to treatment with the antibiotic or extract components alone. No antagonistic interactions were detected. Therefore, use of the extracts in combination with conventional antibiotics would not compromise the antibiotics efficacy. All extracts were nontoxic in the Artemia nauplii and HDF toxicity assays, further indicating their potential for medicinal use. Conclusion: The E. officinalis fruit extracts were moderate inhibitors of the bacterial triggers of selected autoimmune inflammatory diseases. Furthermore, the extracts potentiated the activity of chloramphenicol and tetracycline against otherwise resistant bacterial strains. Isolation of the active compounds and the potentiating agents may be beneficial in antibiotic drug design.

}, keywords = {Amla, ankylosing spondylitis, Combinational therapies, Indian gooseberry, Multi-drug resistant bacteria, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, Synergy}, doi = {10.5530/pj.2018.4.108}, url = {http://fulltxt.org/article/646}, author = {Adrian Hutchings and Ian Edwin Cock} } @article {162, title = {Cakile maritima Scop. extracts inhibit the growth of some bacterial triggers of autoimmune diseases: GC-MS analysis of an inhibitory extract}, journal = {Pharmacognosy Journal}, volume = {8}, year = {2016}, month = {June/2016}, pages = {361-374}, type = {Original Article}, chapter = {361}, abstract = {

Introduction: High antioxidant capacities have been linked to the treatment of rheumatic diseases and also in the inhibition of microbial growth. Although Cakile maritima has a high antioxidant capacity, it is yet to be tested for the ability to inhibit the growth of the bacterial triggers of autoimmune inflammatory diseases. Methods: C. maritima solvent extracts were analysed for antioxidant capacity by the DPPH free radical scavenging assay. Growth inhibitory activities against bacterial species associated with initiating rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis and multiple sclerosis were determined by disc diffusion assay and quantified by MIC determination. Toxicity was determined by Artemia franciscana bioassay. Results: All C. maritima solvent extracts displayed good DPPH radical scavenging activity, although the ethyl acetate extract was particularly potent with an IC50 values of 3.4 \μg/mL. The other extracts also had significant radical scavenging activity, with IC50 between 4.7 and 13.6 \μg/mL. The bacterial growth inhibitory activity of the extracts correlated with their free radical scavenging activity. The ethyl acetate extract displayed the most potent growth inhibitory activity against most bacterial species. This extract was particularly potent against Proteus mirabilis, Proteus vulgaris and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MIC values of 431, 559 and 777 \μg/mL, respectively). The hexane extract was also a potent inhibitor of the Proteus spp., (MIC of approximately 500-800 \μg/mL). The ethyl acetate extract also inhibited Klebsiella pneumoniae growth, albeit with higher MIC\’s (approximately 1500 \μg/mL). All other C. maritima extract-bacteria combinations generally resulted in mid-low potency inhibition. All of the extracts were determined to be nontoxicin with the Artemia franciscana bioassay, with LC50 values substantially \>1000 \μg/mL. A total of 97 unique mass signals were detected in the C. maritima ethyl acetate extract by nonbiased GC-MS headspace analysis. A number of terpenoids which may contribute to the therapeutic bioactivities of the extract were putatively identified. Conclusion: The lack of toxicity and the inhibitory activity against microbial triggers of rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis and multiple sclerosis by the C. maritima ethyl acetate extract indicates its potential in the treatment and prevention of these diseases.

}, keywords = {Acinitobacter baylyi, ankylosing spondylitis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, multiple sclerosis, Proteus mirabilis, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas areuginosa., rheumatoid arthritis}, doi = {10.5530/pj.2016.4.9}, author = {Elsayed Omer and Abdelsamed Elshamy and Abdel Nasser El Gendy and Xin Cai and Joseph Sirdaarta and Alan White and Ian Edwin Cock} } @article {206, title = {Duboisia leichhardtii (F.Muell.) Extracts Inhibit The Growth of Bacterial Triggers of Selected Autoimmune Inflammatory Diseases}, journal = {Pharmacognosy Journal}, volume = {8}, year = {2016}, month = {September 2016}, pages = {542-550}, type = {Original Article}, chapter = {542}, abstract = {

Introduction: Duboisia leichhardtii F.Muell. is a medium to large tree which is native to subtropical regions of eastern Australia. Duboisia spp. contain a number of psychoactive tropane and pyrrolidine alkaloids with reported antibacterial activity. Despite this, D. leichhardtii leaf extracts have not been rigorously examined for growth inhibitory properties against many bacteria, including the bacterial triggers of autoimmune inflammatory diseases. Methods: The antimicrobial activity of D. leichhardtii leaf solvent extracts was investigated by disc diffusion and growth time course assays against a panel of bacterial triggers of autoimmune diseases. The growth inhibitory activity was further quantified by MIC determination and growth time course assays. Toxicity was determined using the Artemia franciscana nauplii bioassay. Results: Methanolic and aqueous D. leichhardtii leaf solvent extracts were potent inhibitors of the bacterial triggers of rheumatoid arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis. The methanolic extract displayed the most potent bacterial growth inhibitory activity. It was particularly potent against P. mirabilis (MICs of 85 and 116 g/mL against reference and clinical strains respectively) and P. vulgaris (MIC of 187 g/mL). The methanolic extract was also a good inhibitor of K. pneumoniae growth (MICs of 143 and 118 g/mL against reference and clinical strains respectively). The aqueous and ethyl acetate extracts were also potent bacterial growth inhibitors, albeit with higher MIC values. The antibacterial activity of the methanolic and aqueous D. leichhardtii leaf extracts were further investigated by growth time course assays which showed significant growth inhibition in cultures of P. mirabilis and K. pneumoniae within 1 h of exposure. All extracts were determined to be nontoxic in the Artemia franciscana nauplii bioassay, indicating their safety for use in preventing these autoimmune inflammatory diseases. Conclusions: The lack of toxicity of the D. leichhardtii leaf extracts and their growth inhibitory bioactivity against the bacterial triggers of rheumatoid arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis indicate their potential in the development of new therapies targeting the onset of these diseases.

}, keywords = {ankylosing spondylitis, Corkwood, Hyoscyamine., multiple sclerosis, Rheumatic Heart Disease, rheumatoid arthritis, Scopolamine, Solanaceae}, doi = {10.5530/pj.2016.6.5}, author = {Ian Edwin Cock} } @article {136, title = {GC-MS Analysis of Commiphora molmol Oleo-Resin Extracts which Inhibit the growth of Bacterial Triggers of Selected Autoimmune Diseases.}, journal = {Pharmacognosy Journal}, volume = {8}, year = {2016}, month = {January 2016}, pages = {191-202}, type = {Original Article}, chapter = {191}, abstract = {

Introduction: Myrrh has been used traditionally for the inhibition of microbial growth and for the treatment of rheumatic diseases. Despite this, myrrh extracts are yet to be tested for the ability to inhibit the growth of the bacterial triggers of autoimmune inflammatory diseases. Methods: Solvent extracts prepared from commercially obtained myrrh resin were analysed for the ability to inhibit the growth of bacterial species associated with initiating rheumatoid arthritis (P. mirabilis), ankylosing spondylitis (K. pneumoniae) and multiple sclerosis (A. baylyi, P. aeruginosa) by disc diffusion assay, and quantified by MIC determination. Toxicity was determined by Artemia franciscana bioassay. The most potent inhibitory extract was investigated using non-targeted GC-MS head space analysis (with screening against a compound database) for the identification and characterization of individual components in the crude plant extracts. Results:\ Methanolic myrrh extract inhibited the growth of all bacterial species tested. The growth inhibition of this extract was particularly notable against P. mirabilis and K. pneumoniae, with MIC values substantially \< 1000 \μg/mL for both reference and clinical bacterial strains. Indeed, the MIC values of the methanolic extract against P. mirabilis reference and clinical strains were 572 and 463 \μg/mL respectively. The methanolic extract also inhibited the growth of A. baylyi (MIC approximately 3000 \μg/mL) and P. aeruginosa (MIC approximately 1800 \μg/mL). However, the MICs against these bacteria was indicative of only moderate inhibitory activity. The aqueous, ethyl acetate, chloroform and hexane extracts also inhibited the growth of all bacterial species, albeit with moderate (MIC values 1000-5000 \μg/mL) to low efficacy (MIC values \>5000 \μg/mL) against all bacterial species. All myrrh extracts were non-toxicin the Artemia franciscana bioassay, with LC50 values substantially above 1000 \μg/mL. Non-biased GC-MS headspace\ analysis of the methanolic extracti dentified a high diversity of monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoid. Conclusion: The lack of toxicity and the inhibitory activity of the methanolic myrrh extract against microbial triggers of rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis and multiple sclerosis indicates its potential in the treatment and prevention of these diseases.

}, keywords = {ankylosing spondylitis, Commiphora molmol, Monoterpenoid, Multiple sclerosis., Myrrh, rheumatoid arthritis, Sesquiterpenoid, Terpenoid}, doi = {10.5530/pj.2016.3.4}, author = {Isaac Biggs and Joseph Sirdaarta and Alan White and Ian Edwin Cock} } @article {30, title = {Tannin components and inhibitory activity of Kakadu plum leaf extracts against microbial triggers of autoimmune inflammatory diseases}, journal = {Pharmacognosy Journal}, volume = {7}, year = {2015}, month = {01/2015}, pages = {18-31}, type = {Original Article}, chapter = {18}, abstract = {

Introduction: Autoimmune inflammatory diseases can be triggered by specific bacteria in susceptible individuals. Terminalia ferdinandiana (Kakadu plum) has documented therapeutic properties as a general antiseptic agent. However, the high ascorbic acid levels in Kakadu plum fruit may interfere with this activity. Methods: T. ferdinandiana leaf solvent extracts were investigated by disc diffusion assay against a panel of bacteria known to trigger autoimmune inflammatory diseases.Their MIC values were determined to quantify and compare their efficacies.Toxicity was determined using the Artemia franciscana nauplii bioassay. Non-targeted HPLC separation of crude extracts coupled to high resolution time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectroscopy with screening against 3 compound databases was used for the identification and characterisation of individual components in crude plant extracts. Results: Methanolic, aqueous and ethyl acetate T. Ferdinandiana leaf extracts displayed potent antibacterial activity in the disc diffusion assay against the bacterial triggers of rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis and multiple sclerosis. The ethyl acetate extract had the most potent inhibitory activity, with MIC values less than 120 \μg/ml against P. mirabilis and A. baylyi (both reference and clinical strains). The ethyl acetate extract had similar potency against K. pneumonia (both reference and clinical strains), but had higher MIC values (2733 \μg/ml) against P. aeruginosa. The methanolic extract was also a potent inhibitor of bacterial growth, with MIC values generally \< 1000 \μg/ml. In comparison, the water, chloroform and hexane leaf extracts were all substantially less potent antibacterial agents, with MICs values generally well over 1000 \μg/ml. All T. ferdinandiana leaf extracts were either nontoxic or of low toxicity in the Artemia fransiscana bioassay.Non-biased phytochemical analysis of the ethyl acetate extract revealed the presence of high levels of tannins (exifone (4-galloylpyrogallol), ellagic acid dehydrate, trimethylellagic acid, chebulic acid, corilagin, punicalin, castalagin and chebulagic acid). Conclusion: The low toxicity of the T. ferdinandiana leaf extracts and their potent inhibitory bioactivity against the bacterial triggers of autoimmune inflammatory disorders indicates their potential as medicinal agents in the treatment and prevention of these diseases.

}, keywords = {Acinetobacter baylyi, ankylosing spondylitis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, multiple sclerosis, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa., rheumatoid arthritis, Terminalia ferdinandiana}, doi = {10.5530/pj.2015.7.2}, author = {R Courtney and J Sirdaarta and B Matthews and I E Cock} } @article {1464, title = {Tannin components and inhibitory activity of Kakadu plum leaf extracts against microbial triggers of autoimmune inflammatory diseases}, journal = {Pharmacognosy Journal}, volume = {7}, year = {2015}, month = {27th Nov, 2014}, pages = {18-31}, type = {Original Article}, chapter = {18}, abstract = {

Introduction: Autoimmune inflammatory diseases can be triggered by specific bacteria in susceptible individuals. Terminalia ferdinandiana (Kakadu plum) has documented therapeutic properties as a general antiseptic agent. However, the high ascorbic acid levels in Kakadu plum fruit may interfere with this activity. Methods: T. ferdinandiana leaf solvent extracts were investigated by disc diffusion assay against a panel of bacteria known to trigger autoimmune inflammatory diseases.Their MIC values were determined to quantify and compare their efficacies. Toxicity was determined using the Artemia franciscana nauplii bioassay. Non-targeted HPLC separation of crude extracts coupled to high resolution time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectroscopy with screening against 3 compound databases was used for the identification and characterisation of individual components in crude plant extracts. Results: Methanolic, aqueous and ethyl acetate T. Ferdinandiana leaf extracts displayed potent antibacterial activity in the disc diffusion assay against the bacterial triggers of rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis and multiple sclerosis. The ethyl acetate extract had the most potent inhibitory activity, with MIC values less than 120 \μg/ml against P. mirabilis and A. baylyi (both reference and clinical strains). The ethyl acetate extract had similar potency against K. pneumonia(both reference and clinical strains), but had higher MIC values (2733 \μg/ml) against P. aeruginosa. The methanolic extract was also a potent inhibitor of bacterial growth, with MIC values generally \< 1000 \μg/ml. In comparison, the water, chloroform and hexane leaf extracts were all substantially less potent antibacterial agents, with MICs values generally well over 1000 \μg/ml. All T. ferdinandiana leaf extracts were either nontoxic or of low toxicity in the Artemia fransiscana bioassay.Non-biased phytochemical analysis of the ethyl acetate extract revealed the presence of high levels of tannins (exifone (4-galloylpyrogallol), ellagic acid dehydrate, trimethylellagic acid, chebulic acid, corilagin, punicalin, castalagin and chebulagic acid). Conclusion: The low toxicity of the T. ferdinandiana leaf extracts and their potent inhibitory bioactivity against the bacterial triggers of autoimmune inflammatory disorders indicates their potential as medicinal agents in the treatment and prevention of these diseases.

Key words: Terminalia ferdinandiana, rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, multiple sclerosis, Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae , Acinetobacter baylyi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

}, keywords = {Acinetobacter baylyi, ankylosing spondylitis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, multiple sclerosis, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa., rheumatoid arthritis, Terminalia ferdinandiana}, author = {R. Courtney and J. Sirdaarta and Matthews B and I.E. Cock} }